Colorado Law & Induced Seismicity

Darlene A. Cypser

Copyright 1996 Darlene A. Cypser

Abstract

Earthquakes can be induced by reservoir impoundment, fluid injection, mining, or oil and gas extraction. These induced quakes create a risk of personal injury or damage to property. The quakes induced at the Rocky Mountain Arsenal near Denver in the 1960's caused significant property damage. Currently, low level seismicity is being induced at several sites in Colorado, including the Rangely Oilfield, Paradox Valley, and Ridgway Reservoir areas. However, no Colorado statute specifically prohibits or regulates induced seismicity. If individuals are injured by seismicity induced in Colorado, they could claim compensation under trespass, negligence or nuisance theories of liability, but Colorado courts are unlikely to apply strict liability to the activities that can induce earthquakes.

Footnotes to:

Colorado Law & Induced Seismicity

Darlene A. Cypser

Copyright 1996 Darlene A. Cypser

See also: Induced Earthquake Bibliography for additional references.

  1. David W. Simpson, Triggered Earthquakes, 14 Ann. Earth Planetary Science 21 (1986).
  2. Paul W. Pomeroy, et al, Earthquakes Triggered by Surface Quarrying -- The Wappinger Falls, New York Sequence of June, 1974, 66 Bull. Seismological Soc'y Am. 685 (1976).
  3. Richard V. Hughes, Denver's Man-Made Earthquakes--Fact or Fancy? Mines Magazine, July 1968, at 22.
  4. Craig Nicholson and Robert L. Wesson, Triggered Earthquakes and Deep Well Activities, 139 Pure & Applied Geophysics 561 (1992).
  5. Scott D. Davis and Cliff Frohlich, Did (or Will) Fluid Injection Cause Earthquakes - Criteria for a Rational Assessment, 64 Seismological Res. Letters 207 (1993).
  6. Maximum magnitude 3.0 reached in December 1983; no damage. Craig Nicholson and Robert L. Wesson, Triggered Earthquakes and Deep Well Activities, 139 Pure & Applied Geophysics 561 (1992).
  7. Maximum magnitude 3.6 reached July 1987; no damage reported. Craig Nicholson and Robert L. Wesson, Triggered Earthquakes and Deep Well Activities, 139 Pure & Applied Geophysics 561 (1992).
  8. Cogdell field: Maximum magnitude 4.6 reach July 1978; Max. Intensity V; minor damages in Snyder, Carlsbad, Fluvanna, Justiceburg and Peacock, Texas. Damages consisted of broken windows, mirrors, and cracked plaster. Scott D. Davis and Wayne Pennington, Induced Seismic Deformation in the Cogdell Oil Field of West Texas, 79 Bull. Seismological Soc'y Am. 1477 (1989) and Scott D. Davis, et al, A Compendium of Earthquake Activity in Texas (1989). Near Kermit, Texas: Maximum magnitude 3.4 reached August 14, 1966; Max. Intensity VI; Damages reported in Kermit included broken windows and dishes, cracked walls and broken jars in grocery stores. Scott D. Davis, et al, A Compendium of Earthquake Activity in Texas (1989).
  9. Maximum magnitude 4.0, reached September 1992.
  10. Maximum magnitude was .8, reached in November of 1973; The tremor was not felt. Craig Nicholson and Robert L. Wesson, Triggered Earthquakes and Deep Well Activities, 139 Pure & Applied Geophysics 561 (1992).
  11. Arthur McGarr, On A Possible Connection Between Three Major Earthquakes in California and Oil Production, 81 Bull. Seismological Soc'y Am. 948 (June 1991).
  12. The largest felt in Fashing, Texas was magnitude 4.3 on April 9, 1993. This quake caused major damage to the Warren Petroleum Plant near the epicenter. Several reinforced concrete foundation blocks cracked or broke. One pipe connection cracked and there were several stretched bolts and one broke bolt. Damage to surrounding residences was minor. Scott D. Davis, et al, The April 9, 1993 Earthquake in South Central Texas: Was it Induced by Oil and Gas Production? 85 Bull. Seismological Soc'y Am. 1888 (1995) The Fall City area experienced its largest quake on July 20, 1991. The magnitude was 3.6. Pleasanton's largest quake was 3.9 and occurred March 3, 1984. Damages were minor, including cracked plaster and widening of concrete cracks. Scott D. Davis, et al, A Compendium of Earthquake Activity in Texas (1989).
  13. J. R. Grasso, et al, The Three M 7 Gazli Earthquakes, Usbekistan, Central Asia: The Largest Seismic Energy Releases by Human Activity, Abstracts XXI Gen. Assembly Int'l Union Geodesy & Geophysics A363 (1995); L. M. Plotnikova, et al, Induced Seismicity in the Gazly Gas Field Region, 99 Gerlands Beitrage zur Geophysik 389 (1990); David W. Simpson & William Leith, The 1976 and 1984 Gazli, USSR, Earthquakes Were They Induced? 75 Bull. Seismological Soc'y Am., 1465 (1985).
  14. Harsh K. Gupta, Reservoir-Induced Earthquakes (1992)
  15. Dean S. Carder, Reservoir Loading and Local Earthquakes, Engineering Geology Case Histories #8 at 51 (1970).
  16. See: J. L. Beck, Weight induced Stresses and the Recent Seismicity at Lake Oroville, California, 66 Bull. Seismological Soc'y Am. 1121 (1976); M. Lee Bell & Amos Nur, Strength Changes Due to Reservoir Induced Pore Pressure and Stresses and Application to Lake Oroville, 83 J. Geophysical Res. 4469 (1978); Charles G. Bufe, et al, Oroville Earthquakes: Normal Faulting in the Sierra Nevada Foothills, 192 Science 72 (1976).
  17. Harsh K. Gupta, The Present Status of Reservoir Induced Seismicity Investigations with Special Emphasis on Koyna Earthquakes, 118 Tectonophysics 257, 269 (1985).
  18. Harsh K. Gupta & B. K. Rastogi, Dams and Earthquakes (1976). Seismicity has continued in the area with damaging quakes occurring in 1973, 1980 and 1993-94. Seismicity has also increased since the filling of the Warna Reservoir nearby, raising the possibility of another devastating quake. B.K. Rastogi, et al, Renewed Seismicity Around Koyna Reservoir in India During 1993-94, Abstracts XXI Gen. Assembly Int'l Union Geodesy & Geophysics A367 (1995) and Letter from Harsh K. Gupta to author (August 1995) (on file with author).
  19. Magnitude 5.3. Two miners were trapped and one subsequently died. See Peter L. Swanson & Frances M. Boler, The Magnitude 5.3 Event and Collapse of the Solvay Trona Mine: Analysis of Pillar/Floor Failure Stability, U.S. Bureau of Mines Open File Rep. #86 95 (1995).
  20. Ivan G. Wong, Recent Developments in Rockburst and Mine Seismicity Research, Rock Mechanics 1103 (Tillerson & Wawesik, eds., 1992).
  21. D.W. Redmayne, Mining Induced Seismicity in UK Coalfields Identified on the BGS National Seismograph Network, Engineering Geology of Underground Movements, Geological Soc'y Eng. Geology Special Publication No. 5, at 405 (F.G. Bell, et al, eds., 1988).
  22. L.M. Fernadez, et al, Catalog of Earthquakes in South Africa and Surrounding Oceans for 1988, Geological Survey, Dept. of Mineral and Energy Affairs, South Africa (1992).
  23. D.W. Redmayne, Mining Induced Seismicity in UK Coalfields Identified on the BGS National Seismograph Network, Engineering Geology of Underground Movements, Geological Soc'y Eng. Geology Special Publication No. 5, at 405, 409 (F.G. Bell, et al, eds., 1988); P. Styles, et al, Microseismic Monitoring for the Prediction of Outbursts at Cynheidre Colliery, Dyfed, S. Wales, Engineering Geology of Underground Movements, Geological Soc'y Eng. Geology Special Publication No. 5, at 423, 427 (F.G. Bell, et al, eds., 1988); N.G.W. Cook, Seismicity Associated with Mining, 10 Engineering Geology 99, 115 (1976).
  24. Henry S. Hasegawa, et al, Induced Seismicity in Mines In Canada -- An Overview, 129 Pure & Applied Geophysics 423, 427 (1989).
  25. Ivan G. Wong, Recent Developments in Rockburst and Mine Seismicity Research, Rock Mechanics 1103, 1103 (1992); Markus Bath, A Rockburst Project at Uppsala, Proc. 2d Conf. on Acoustic Emission/MicroSeismic Activity in Geologic Structure & Materials, 5 Series on Rock & Soil Mechanics, 89 (1980).
  26. D.W. Redmayne, Mining Induced Seismicity in UK Coalfields Identified on the BGS National Seismograph Network, Engineering Geology of Underground Movements, Geological Soc'y Eng. Geology Special Pub. No. 5, 405, 412 (F.G. Bell, et al, eds., 1988).
  27. 3.3 mag. Maximum Intensity V; Paul Pomeroy, et al, Earthquakes Triggered by Surface Quarrying--The Wappinger Falls, New York Sequence of June, 1974, 66 Bull. Seismological Soc'y Am., 685 (1976).
  28. Dixon v. New York Trap Rock Corp., 58 N.E.2d 517 (N.Y. 1944).
  29. 58 N.E.2d 517 (1944).
  30. Paul W. Pomeroy, et al, Earthquakes Triggered by Surface Quarrying -- The Wappingers Falls, New York Sequence of June, 1974, 66 Bull. Seismological Soc'y Am. 685 (June 1976). These quakes were the result of removal of large volumes of rock from the surface. The underlying rock then shifted in response to the change in stress.
  31. Carl Kisslinger, A Review of Theories of Mechanisms of Induced Seismicity, 10 Engineering Geology 85 (1976).
  32. Committee for Nuclear Responsibility, Inc. v. Schlessinger, 404 U.S. 917 (1971).
  33. Carl Kisslinger, A Review of Theories of Mechanisms of Induced Seismicity, 10 Engineering Geology 85, 86-87 (1976).
  34. id.
  35. RMA Prehistory, Eagle Watch, August 1992 at 4-5.
  36. 1940s, Eagle Watch, August 1992 at 7.
  37. 1950s, Eagle Watch, August 1992 at 8-9.
  38. id. See also, The Rocky Mountain Arsenal, EPA Fact Sheet, December 1991.
  39. Land v. U.S., 29 Cl. Ct. 744, 747 (1993).
  40. In 1969 a physical inspection of Basin F revealed that not only was the basin leaking but that a whole section of the protective membrane was gone. Land v. U.S. 29 Cl. Ct. 744, 748 (1993).
  41. 1960s, Eagle Watch, August 1992 at 10-11; See also, J. H. Healy, et al, The Denver Earthquakes, 161 Science 1301 (1968).
  42. Maurice W. Major & Ruth B. Simon, A Seismic Study of the Denver (Derby) Earthquakes, 63 Q. Colo. School Mines 9 (Jan. 1968).
  43. Poh-Hsi Pan, The 1962 Earthquakes & Microearthquakes near Derby, Colorado, (1963) (unpublished Master's Thesis T-978, Colorado School of Mines); Yung-Liag Wang, Local Hypocenter Determinations in Linear Varying Layers Applied to the Earthquakes in the Denver area, (1965) (unpublished Ph.D. Thesis T-1027, Colorado School of Mines).
  44. Robert M. Kirkham & William P. Rogers, Earthquake Potential in Colorado, Colo. Geological Survey Bull. #43 (1981) [hereinafter Earthquake Potential] and Dept. Army, Summary History of Rocky Mountain Arsenal, Vol. II 37 (1967-1980) (unpublished manuscript, available at the Denver Public Library, Western History Collection, Denver, Colo.).
  45. J. H. Healy, et al, Microseismicity Studies at the Site of the Denver Earthquakes, Geophysical and Geological Investigations Relating to Earthquakes in the Denver Area, Colorado, U.S. Geological Survey Open File Rep. #832, at 14 (J.H. Healy et al, eds., 1966)
  46. J. H. Healy, et al, The Denver Earthquakes, 161 Science 1301, 1301 (1968).
  47. See Water Wells Called Indicators of Earthquake Movement, Denver Post, August 10, 1967 at 3; Experts to Review Quakes: Arsenal Well in Focus Again, Denver Post, Nov. 27, 1967 at 3; Gene Lindberg, Evans Favors Pumping Well, Denver Post, November 29, 1967 at 3; Walter Sullivan, Quake at Denver Called Possible, New York Times, March 8, 1968 at 53; Authorities Divided on Pumping, Denver Post, March 10, 1968 at 14; Naomi Nover, Arsenal Well: LBJ to Face Quake Report, Denver Post, March 15, 1968 at 71; William Sullivan, Denver to Get a 'Shrinkage' Test As Quake-Area Well is Tapped, New York Times, July 4, 1968 at 42; and Arsenal Planning to Pump Well, Denver Post, July 16, 1968 at 4.
  48. McVicker Dismayed at Announced Pumping Test, Denver Post, August 4, 1968 at 3.
  49. Marilyn Robinson, Record Earthquake Shakes Denver Area, Denver Post, April 10, 1967 at 1; Marilyn Robinson, Aftershocks Still Rock Denver Area, Denver Post, April 11, 1967 at 1; David Brand, Record Quake Shakes Widespread Area, Rocky Mountain News, April 11, 1967 at 5; Earthquake History of Colorado, Earthquake Information Bulletin, 24, 26-27 (Nov.-Dec. 1970)
  50. Marilyn Robinson, Denver Area Jolted by Worst Earthquake, Denver Post, August 9, 1967 at 1 & 3; Earthquake History of Colorado, Earthquake Information Bulletin, 24, 27 (Nov.-Dec. 1970)
  51. Letter from Fred Sharrocks, Office of Earthquakes and Natural Hazards, Federal Emergency Management Agency. (August 21, 1991).
  52. Experts to Review Quakes: Arsenal Well in Focus Again, Denver Post, Nov. 27, 1967 at 3.
  53. Denver Rocked by Sharp, Widely Felt Earthquakes, Rocky Mountain News, November 27, 1967, at 1.
  54. Naomi Nover, Arsenal Well: LBJ to Face Quake Report, Denver Post, March 15, 1968, at 71.
  55. Arsenal Planning to Pump Well, Denver Post, July 16, 1968 at 4; William Sullivan, Denver to Get a 'Shrinkage' Test As Quake-Area Well is Tapped, New York Times, July 4, 1968 at 42.
  56. D. B. Hoover & J.A. Dietrich, Seismic Activity During the 1968 Test Pumping at the Rocky Mountain Arsenal Disposal Well, U.S. Geological Circular #613 (1969).
  57. Dept. Army, Summary History of Rocky Mountain Arsenal, Denver, CO, Vol. III 16-17 (1967 1980) (Unpublished manuscript, available at Denver Public Library Western History Collection, Denver, Co.); D. B. Hoover & J.A. Dietrich, Seismic Activity During the 1968 Test Pumping at the Rocky Mountain Arsenal Disposal Well, U.S. Geological Circ. 613 (1969); Paul A. Hsieh & John D. Bredehoft, A Reservoir Analysis of the Denver Earthquakes: A Case of Induced Seismicity, 86 J. Geophys. Res. 903, 917 (1981).
  58. There were approximately 13 quakes detected near the Arsenal by the Geophysical Observatory at the Colorado School of Mines in 1968; 15 in 1969; 3 in 1970; 5 in 1971; 2 in 1972; 1 in 1978; 2 in 1981; and 2 in 1982. The maximum intensities reported were V in 1968 through 1971; IV in 1972, & 1978; VI in 1981; and III in 1982. Robert M. Kirkham & William P. Rogers, Colorado Earthquake Data and Interpretations 1867 to 1985, Colorado Geological Survey Bull. #46, 13-15 (1985).
  59. Darlene A. Cypser & Scott D. Davis, Liability for Induced Earthquakes, 9 J. Envtl. L. & Litig. 551, 557 n.22 (1994).
  60. Healy et al., supra note 46, at 1301 & 1309, P. Hsieh & J. Bredehoft, A Reservoir Analysis of the Denver Earthquakes: A Case of Induced Seismicity, 86 J. Geophysical Res. 903, 919 (1981). and Earthquake Potential, supra note 44, at 100.
  61. Earthquake Potential, supra note 44, at 71 & 100; Healy et al., supra note 46, at 1306 9 and Hsieh & Bredehoft, supra note 60, at 914 919.
  62. C. B. Raleigh, et al, An Experiment in Earthquake Control at Rangeley, Colorado, 191 Science 1230, 1230 (1976)
  63. Scanlon, A. H., Oil and Gas Fields of Colorado: Statistical Data Through 1981, Colo. Geological Survey Information Series #18, (1982); Colorado Oil & Gas Information Management System Annual Production Report for 1995 (1996).
  64. R. C. Munson, Relationship of Effect of Waterflooding of the Rangeley Oil Field on Seismicity, Engineering Geology Case Histories #8, 40 (1970).
  65. C. B. Raleigh, et al, An Experiment in Earthquake Control at Rangeley, Colorado, 191 Science 1230 (1976); C.B. Raleigh, Earthquakes and Fluid Injection, Underground Waste Management and Environmental Implications, 273 (1972); James F. Gibbs, Earthquakes in the Oil Field at Rangely Colorado, U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report (1972); R. C. Munson, Relationship of Effect of Waterflooding of the Rangely Oil Field on Seismicity, Engineering Geology Case Histories #8, at 39 (1970)
  66. C.B. Raleigh, Earthquakes and Fluid Injection, Underground Waste Management and Environmental Implications, 273, 275 (1972); R. C. Munson, Relationship of Effect of Waterflooding of the Rangely Oil Field on Seismicity, Engineering Geology Case Histories #8, at 39, 40 (1970)
  67. C. B. Raleigh, et al, An Experiment in Earthquake Control at Rangeley, Colorado, 191 Science 1230, 1231 (1976).
  68. C. B. Raleigh, et al, An Experiment in Earthquake Control at Rangeley, Colorado, 191 Science 1230, 1231 (1976); James F. Gibbs, et al, Earthquakes in the Oil Field at Rangely Colorado, U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report 10 (1972).
  69. C.B. Raleigh, Earthquakes and Fluid Injection, Underground Waste Management and Environmental Implications, 273, 275 (1972).
  70. C.B. Raleigh, Earthquakes and Fluid Injection, Underground Waste Management and Environmental Implications, 273, 275-276 (1972); C.B. Raleigh, et al, Faulting and Crustal Stress at Rangeley, Colorado, Flow and Fracture of Rocks, Geophysical Monograph #16, (Heard, et al, ed., 1972).
  71. C. B. Raleigh, et al, An Experiment in Earthquake Control at Rangeley, Colorado, 191 Science 1230, 1234 (1976); C.B. Raleigh, Earthquakes and Fluid Injection, Underground Waste Management and Environmental Implications, 273, 276 (1972).
  72. C.B. Raleigh, et al, Faulting and Crustal Stress at Rangeley, Colorado, Flow and Fracture of Rocks, Geophysical Monograph #16, 275, 282 (Heard, et al ed. 1972)
  73. James F. Gibbs, et al, Earthquakes in the Oil Field at Rangely Colorado, U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report 21 (1972).
  74. From the earthquake database of the National Geophysical Data Center, Boulder, Colorado.
  75. Jon Ake, et al, Microseismicity by Fluid Injection in the Paradox Valley of Southwestern Colorado, 63 Seismological Research Letters 19 (Jan-Mar 1992).
  76. id.
  77. Jon P. Ake, personal communication, Sept. 1995.
  78. Jon Ake, et al, Microseismicity by Fluid Injection in the Paradox Valley of Southwestern Colorado, 63 Seismological Research Letters 19 (Jan-Mar 1992).
  79. Jon P. Ake, et al, Induced Microseismicity Associated With Deep-Well Disposal of Brine at Paradox Valley, Colorado, EOS, Proc. Amer. Geophysical Union, Abstracts 473 (1994) and Jon P. Ake, personal communication (Sept. 1995).
  80. Ute R. Vetter, et al, Seismicity Near Ridgway Dam, Southwestern Colorado, 66 Seismological Res. Letters 48 (1995)
  81. November 11, 1913 Maximum MMI V plus two felt aftershocks; August 3, 1955 Max. MMI VI; October 11, 1960 5.5 mb Max. MMI VI followed the next day by a intensity IV aftershock; January 13, 1962 4.4 local magnitude Max. MMI IV; February 5, 1962 magnitude 4.7 max. MMI V; September 4, 1966 4.2 mb; April 4, 1967 4.5 mb; September 13, 1994 magnitude 4.6 max MMI VI. Richard A. Martin, Ridgway Seismographic Network: Preliminary Results of Network Operation for the Period June 4, 1985 through April 30, 1987, Seismotectonic Report No. 87-1, Seismotectonic Section, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (June 1987); William Lettis, et al, Draft Report, Seismotectonic Evaluation, Colorado River Storage Project & Smith Fork Project, West-Central Colorado, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (October 1995).
  82. Richard A. Martin, Ridgway Seismographic Network: Preliminary Results of Network Operation for the Period June 4, 1985 through April 30, 1987, Seismotectonic Report No. 87-1, Seismotectonic Section, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 1-2 (June 1987).
  83. Ute R. Vetter, et al, Seismicity Near Ridgway Dam, Southwestern Colorado, 66 Seismological Res. Letters 48 (1995); Richard A. Martin, Ridgway Seismographic Network: Preliminary Results of Network Operation for the Period June 4, 1985 through April 30, 1987, Seismotectonic Report No. 87-1, Seismotectonic Section, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 2 (June 1987)
  84. Jon P. Ake, et al, Possible Reservoir-Induced Seismicity (RIS) Associated with Ridgway Dam and Reservoir, 63 Seismological Res. Letters, 19-20 (1992).
  85. Ute R. Vetter, et al, Seismicity Near Ridgway Dam, Southwestern Colorado, 66 Seismological Res. Letters 48 (1995); Richard A. Martin, Ridgway Seismographic Network: Preliminary Results of Network Operation for the Period June 4, 1985 through April 30, 1987, Seismotectonic Report No. 87-1, Seismotectonic Section, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 2 (June 1987).
  86. Jon Ake, et al, Possible Reservoir-Induced Seismicity (RIS) Associated with Ridgway Dam and Reservoir, 63 Seismol. Res. Letters, 19-20 (1992).
  87. Issue Paper from Dam Safety Office: Continued Funding of Micro Seismic Networks at Jackson Lake Dam and Ridgway Dam, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 1 (January 31, 1994).
  88. Ute R. Vetter, Seismicity Near Ridgway Dam, Southwestern Colorado, 66 Seismol. Res. Letters 48 (1995) and William Lettis, Draft Report, Seismotectonic Evaluation, Colorado River Storage Project & Smith Fork Project, West-Central Colorado, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (October 1995).
  89. Issue Paper from Dam Safety Office: Continued Funding of Micro Seismic Networks at Jackson Lake Dam and Ridgway Dam, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 2 (January 31, 1994).
  90. Memorandum from Rick L. Gold acting for Charles Calhoun, Upper Colorado Regional Office, Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Dept. of Interior, Salt Lake City, Utah (June 2, 1994).
  91. Ruth B. Simon, Seismicity, Geologic Atlas of the Rocky Mountain Region, 51 (W.W. Mallory, et al, eds. 1972).
  92. Frank W. Osterwald, et al, Instrumentation Studies of Earth Tremors Related to Geology and to Mining at the Somerset Coal Mine, Colorado, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper #762 9 (1972)
  93. id. at 1.
  94. id at 14.
  95. id at 18.
  96. C. Richard Dunrud, Some Engineering Geologic Factors Controlling Coal Mine Subsidence in Utah and Colorado, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper #969, 27-29 (1976)
  97. John Horgan, Peaceful Nuclear Explosions, 275 Sci. Am. 14, 16 (June 1996). During the first two Rio Blanco production tests in November 1973 and February 1974 the only radioactive elements detected were tritium and krypton (as gas or tritiated water). However, there was no communication between the upper and lower chimneys. A well was drilled into the bottom chimney. During a short flow test from the bottom chimney in December 1974, Tritium, Krypton 85, Cesium 137 and Strontium 90 were detected. Project Rio Blanco, Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment, Radiation Control Division [## Bad link: (http://www.state.co.us/ gov_dir/cdphe_dir/rc/en_riobl.htm)] (1996).
  98. Richard Navarro, Rio Blanco Seismic Effects, U.S. Geologic Survey Open File Report (1974); Earthquake Potential supra note 44, at 107.
  99. Earthquake Potential supra note 44, at 107.
  100. id.
  101. Project Rulison, Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment, Radiation Control Division [## Bad link: (http://www.state.co.us/ gov_dir/cdphe_dir/rc/en_rulison.htm) (1996).
  102. Frank W. Osterwald, et al, Instrumental Studies of Earth Tremors Related to Geology and to Mining at the Somerset Coal Mine, Colorado, U.S. Geological Survey Prof. Paper #762 (1972)
  103. Earthquake Potential supra note 44 at 107; Richard Navarro, Kenneth W. King, et al, Rio Blanco Seismic Effects, U.S. Geol. Survey Open File Report, 2 (1974)
  104. Richard Navarro, et al, Rio Blanco Seismic Effects, U.S. Geol. Survey Open File Report, 4-5 (1974).
  105. Earthquake Potential, supra note 44 at 108 (1981).
  106. Richard Navarro, et al, Rio Blanco Seismic Effects, U.S. Geol. Survey Open File Report, 37 (1974).
  107. id at 45.
  108. id at 40.
  109. id at 37.
  110. id at 46.
  111. Project Rio Blanco, Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment, Radiation Control Division [## Bad link:(http:// www.state.co.us/gov_dir/cdphe_dir/rc/en_riobl.htm] (1996).
  112. Micro Geophysical Corp., Strontia Springs Reservoir Seismicity Report, Final Report, 23-24 (Sept. 1983); David Butler, Seismic Hazard Estimation at the Two Forks Dam Site Near Denver, Colorado, Geotechnical Investigations in Geophysics, 107 (1990); and Dames & Moore, Geological and Seismologic Investigations for Rocky Flats Plant for U.S. Department of Energy: Final Report, Appendix G (1981).
  113. Earthquake Potential supra note 44 at 108; Ruth B. Simon, Seismicity of Colorado--Consistency with Those of the Historical Record, 165 Science 897, 898 (1969); Ruth B. Simon, Seismicity, Geologic Atlas of the Rocky Mountain Region, 51 (W.W. Mallory et al, eds. 1972).
  114. David M. Evans, Man-made Earthquake--A Progress Report, Geotimes 19 (July Aug. 1967).
  115. David T. Snow, Geodynamics of Seismic Reservoirs, Proc. Symp. on Flow through Fracture Rock (1972).
  116. L.M. Hadley, Seismicity of Colorado --Vicinity of Cabin Creek Pumped-Storage Hydroelectric Plant (1975) (Unpublished Master's Thesis #T-1713, Colorado School of Mines).
  117. Ruth B. Simon, Seismicity of Colorado--Consistency with Those of the Historical Record, 165 Science 897 (1969); Ruth B. Simon, Seismicity, Geologic Atlas of the Rocky Mountain Region, (W.W. Mallory et al, eds. (1972).
  118. L.A. Warner, Strain Rates, Stress Distribution and Seismic Potential in Central Colorado, Contributions to Colorado Seismicity and Tectonics: A 1986 Update, Co. Geol Survey Sp. Pub. #28, 30 (W. P. Rogers & R. M. Kirkham, ed., 1986).
  119. Ivan G. Wong & James R. Humphrey, The 14 August 1983 Cimarron, Colorado Earthquake and the Cimarron Fault, 23 Mountain Geologist 14 (Jan. 1986).
  120. Ruth B. Simon, Seismicity of Colorado--Consistency with Those of the Historical Record, 165 Science 897 (1969); Ruth B. Simon, Seismicity, Geologic Atlas of the Rocky Mountain Region, (W.W. Mallory et al, eds. (1972).
  121. Stanley J. Johnson & Ellis L. Krinitzsky, Reservoirs and Induced Seismicity at Corps of Engineers Projects, Corps of Engineers Misc.Papers S-77-3, at 8 (1977).
  122. See MicroGeophysical Corp., Seismological Investigations of the South Platte River Canyon: Foothills Treatment Plant 41(Sept. 1977); MicroGeophysical Corp., Strontia Springs Reservoir Seismicity Report: Sept. 13, 1982-March 15,1983 (1983); and Earthquake Potential supra note 44 at 119.
  123. William Spence, Review of the Denver Water Department Induced Seismicity Program at Strontia Springs, Colorado, U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report 82-64 (1982).
  124. Nathan R. Hopton & Farrukh M. Mazhar, Geotechnical Aspects of Strontia Springs Arch Dam, HydroPower: Recent Developments, (ed. A. Zagars, 1985).
  125. MicroGeophysical Corp., Strontia Springs Reservoir Seismicity Report, Final Report, (Sept. 1983).
  126. MicroGeophysical Corp., Seismological Investigations of the South Platte River Canyon: Foothills Treatment Plant 41 (Sept. 1977); MicroGeophysical Corp., Strontia Springs Reservoir Seismicity Report: Sept. 13, 1982-March 15,1983 (1983); Earthquake Potential supra note 44, at 119.
  127. Scientists from MicroGeophysics Corp. criticized this study: "However, the interpretation of the results of this paper is open to question. The 'type I events' they detect are most consistent with either cars, airplanes, or other cultural interferences. Similar events are detected by most seismic networks and are usually disregarded." MicroGeophysics Corp., Seismological Investigations of the South Platte River Canyon: Foothills Treatment Plant, 41-44 (Sept. 1977). While the Leyden mine study is far from conclusive this criticism ignores the statements in the paper that the investigators recorded "numerous tremors caused by aircraft and railroad trains" (The Denver and Rio Grande Western line runs just north of the mine.) and that "the records from these sources are quite distinct and cannot be confused with the records of the two types of local seismic tremors." Frank W. Osterwald, et al, Preliminary Investigation of Seismic Tremors in the General Area of the Leyden Coal Mine Gas-Storage Reservoir, Colorado, U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report #1760 at 11 (1973) Furthermore, vibrations from cars are more likely to have been recorded by the seismometers near Colorado Highways 93 and 72. However, these seismometers did not pick up the Type I tremors. The Type I tremors were only recorded by seismometers over the mine which is a rural area where there are only a few dirt roads. id. at 14.
  128. Frank W. Osterwald, et al, Preliminary Investigation of Seismic Tremors in the General Area of the Leyden Coal Mine Gas-Storage Reservoir, Colorado, U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report #1760 (1973) and Earthquake Potential supra note 44 at 118.
  129. Complaint, McQueary v. Laird, No. C-1461, (D. Colorado, filed June 4, 1969) (unpublished, available at the National Archives, Denver Federal Center, Lakewood, Colo.) 449 F.2d 608 (1971). One of the plaintiffs was Byron Johnson, a U.S. Representative from Colorado. Two of attorneys for the plaintiffs were Democrats Richard Lamm, future governor of Colorado, and Gary Hart, future U.S. Senator for Colorado. This information, together with the fact that no attempt was made to respond to the motion to dismiss before the deadline, suggests that the case may have been filed for political reasons.
  130. Order filed September 11, 1970, McQueary v. Laird, No. C-1461, (D. Colorado, cased filed June 4, 1969) (unpublished; available at the National Archives, Denver Federal Center, Lakewood, Colo.) 449 F. 608 (1971). In support of the Motion to Dismiss, the Defendants submitted several affidavits including one by Albert H. Rock, Chief of the Safety Office at Rocky Mountain Arsenal. In his affidavit, Mr. Rock stated: "as regards earthquake activity during the period of years 1942-1969 there has been no earth tremors or movements which have caused any damage at Rocky Mountain Arsenal." This sworn statement is contrary to newspaper accounts published in 1967. See sources at notes 47-53.
  131. McQueary v. Laird, 449 F.2d 608 (10th Cir. 1971) Plaintiffs' attorneys also tried to raise the National Environmental Protection Act as a basis for jurisdiction during oral arguments on appeal. The Court of Appeals ruled that the needs of national security prohibited NEPA from forming a basis for jurisdiction. id. at 612.
  132. "These challenges raised by the appellants in this case fall within that narrow band of matters wholly committed to official discretion...." McQueary v. Laird at 612
  133. 28 U.S. Code §2680(a). A two prong analysis determines whether the discretionary function exception applies. First the act must involve an element of judgment, choice or discretion. It must not be contrary to a specific statute or regulation. Second, the discretion must be based on considerations of public policy. Daigle v. Shell Oil Co., 972 F.2d 1528, 1537-1543 (10th Cir. 1992).
  134. "A local insurance agent said that no damage reports had been received at this office but he explained that less than one percent of Boulder homeowners carry earthquake insurance which requires a separate endorsement on a homeowner's policy." Boulder Daily Camera, Nov. 27, 1967 at 2.
  135. Letter from Nancy Ritchy, Western Insurance Information Service, to author, July 18, 1991 (on file with author).
  136. Colo. Rev. Stat. §24-10-101 et seq.
  137. Colo. Rev. Stat. §24-10-106(f)
  138. Another possibility would be a claim under Article 2 Section 15 of the Colorado Constitution which prohibits taking or damaging property without just compensation. The Governmental Immunity Act does not apply to inverse condemnation actions. Jorgenson v. City of Aurora, 767 P.2d 756 (Colo. App. 1988).
  139. Colo. Rev. Stat. §24-10-106(4).
  140. 28 U.S.C. §1346 (b).
  141. 28 U.S.C. §2680 (a).
  142. Berkovitz v. U.S., 486 U.S. 531 (1988).
  143. id.
  144. Ayala v. U.S., 980 F.2d 1342 (10th Cir. 1992) (Ayala V).
  145. Ayala v. U.S., 49 F.3d 607 (10th Cir. 1995) (Ayala VII).
  146. Colo. Rev. Stat. §87-37-101 et seq and 2 Colo. Code. Reg. §402-1.
  147. 2 Colo. Code Rev. §402-1 5.A. (6)(a).
  148. Colo. Rev. Stat. §37-87-107.
  149. 2 Colo. Code Rev. §402-10 Rule 5.10.
  150. 2 Colo. Code Rev. §402-10 Rule 5.12.
  151. Colo. Rev. Stat. §34-60-106.
  152. 42 U.S.C. §300f et seq and the regulations at 40 C.F.R. §144.26. The UICP regulations include information, siting and operating requirements that could be used to limit some activity that might induce earthquakes. However, the regulations were primarily written to prevent injected wastes from entering sources of drinking water. A well that meets all the requirements of the UICP could still induce damaging earthquakes.
  153. 2 Colo. Code Reg. §404-1 Rule 325 (1997).
  154. 2 Colo. Code Reg. §404-1 Rule 325(a)(7) (1997).
  155. Gerrity Oil & Nat. Gas Corp. v. Bob Magnes, 923 P.2d 261 (Colo. App. 1995) cert. granted 9/9/96.
  156. Colo. Rev. Stat. §34-60-114.
  157. Burt v. Beautiful Savior Lutheran Church, 809 P.2d 1064, 1067 (Colo. App. 1990) cert. den. (May 6, 1991) This case essentially overrules the misreading of Colorado trespass law by the U.S. Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals in Haas v. Levin, 635 F.2d 1384 (1980). In Haas v. Levin, the Court of Appeals ruled that dust and dirt blowing from an improperly tilled field was an "indirect invasion" and thus not a trespass. The federal court made no reference to Colorado trespass cases, but rather based this decision purely a general tort reference (Harper & James, The Law of Torts) and its discussion of an old English case.
  158. Burt v. Beautiful Savior Lutheran Church, 809 P.2d 1064, (Colo. App. 1990) cert. den. (May 6, 1991) (discharge of water onto neighbor's property); Cobai v. Young, 679 P.2d 121 (Colo. App. 1984)(snow sliding off roof and hitting neighbor's house); Docheff V. City of Broomfield, 623 P.2d 69 (Colo. App. 1980) cert. den. (Feb. 2, 1981) (discharge of water onto neighbor's property); Miller v. Carnation Co., 564 P.2d 127 (Colo. App. 1977) cert. den. (Dec. 24, 1973) (invasion by flies bread in chicken manure).
  159. Cobai v. Young, 679 P.2d 121, 123 (Colo. App. 1984).
  160. id. The houses were located in Crested Butte, Colorado, which receives 300-500 feet of snow per year. While the court stated that it rejected the contention that the usual amount of snow an area receives should affect liability, id. at 122, the likelihood of future injury (which is crucial to the injunction) is higher in Crested Butte than at a place that only receives a couple of inches of snow per year.
  161. Docheff v. City of Broomfield, 623 P.2d 69 (1981) cert. den. (Feb. 2, 1981). In accord, Hankins v. Borland, 431 P. 2d 1007 (1967).
  162. Burt v. Beautiful Savior Luth. Church, 809 P. 2d 1064 (Colo. App. 1990).
  163. The court stated that holding that the plaintiffs "moved to the nuisance" and thus failed to mitigate damages would allow the defendants to "condemn" part of the neighboring property by making it unrentable by their trespass. id. at 1069.
  164. 285 P.2d 596 (1955).
  165. E.g., Watson v. Mississippi River Power Co., 156 N.W. 188 (Iowa 1916), Exner v. Sherman Power Const. Co., 54 F.2d 510 (2d Cir. 1931), Enos Coal Mining Co. v. Schuchart, 188 N.E. 2d 406 (Ind. 1963).
  166. E.g. McNeill v. Redington, 154 P.2d 428 (Cal. Ct. App. 1945) (vibrations from a drop forging plant constituted a trespass).
  167. Generally, Colorado courts will only grant an injunction if there is an imminent danger of substantial, irreparable injury and the remedy at law is inadequate. American Investors Life Insurance Co. v. Green Shield Plan, Inc. 358 P.2d 473 (Colo. 1961). If no quakes have occurred, proving that there is an imminent danger of substantial injury may be difficult. There must be more than a mere fear or possibility that injury will occur. Martinez v. Winner, 548 F. Supp. 278. (D. C. Colo, 1982). Unfortunately, enjoining the inducing activity may not immediately end the seismicity. For example, the three largest of the Rocky Mountain Arsenal quakes occurred over a year after the Army stopped injecting fluid into the well. Small quakes continued in the area till 1982. The pressure wave created underground by the fluid injection could not just be "turned off" and took years to dissipate.
  168. Leake v. Cain, 720 P.2d 152, 155 (Colo. 1986). Accord: Palmer v. A.H. Robins CO., Inc., 684 P. 2d 187, 209 (Colo. 1984) and Calvaresi v. National Development Co., Inc., 772 P.2d 640, 644 (Colo. App. 1988).
  169. Metropolitan Gas Repair Serv., Inc. v. Kulik, 621 P.2d 313, 317 (Colo. 1981). Accord: Palmer v. A. H. Robins Co. Inc. 684 P.2d 187 (Colo. 1984); Leake v. Cain, 720 P.2d 152, 160, (Colo. 1986); and Calvaresi v. National Development Co., Inc., 772 P.2d 640, 644 (Colo. App. 1988) cert. den. (April 10, 1989).
  170. Aldrich Enterprises, Inc. v. U.S., 938 F. 2d 1134 (10th Cir. 1991). A lessor's liability for the conditions created by a lessee is limited to activities the lessor knew would be carried on at the time of the lease, and had reason to know would involve an unreasonable risk or require special precautions that the tenant would not take. 938 F.2d at 1141. In accord, Moore v. Standard Paint & Glass., 358 P.2d 33 (Colo. 1960).
  171. Metropolitan Gas Repair Serv., Inc. v. Kulik, 621 P.2d 313, 317 (Colo. 1981).
  172. Moore v. Standard Paint & Glass., 358 P.2d 33, 36 (Colo. 1960).
  173. Calvaresi v. National Development Co., Inc., 772 P.2d 640, 644 (Colo. App. 1988) cert. den. (April 10, 1989).
  174. Public Service Co. v. Williams, 270 P. 659, 660 & 663 (Colo. 1928).
  175. Denver, S.P. & P.R. Co. v. Conway, 5 P. 142, 147 (Colo. 1884).
  176. Calvaresi v. National Development Co., Inc., 772 P.2d 640, 644 (Colo. App. 1988) cert. den. (April 10, 1989).
  177. Public Service Co. v. Williams, 270 P. 659, 660 & 663 (Colo. 1928).
  178. LaVine v. Clear Creek Skiing Corp., 557 F. 2d 730 (10th Cir. 1977).
  179. Pearce v. Mountain States Telephone & Telegraph Co., 173 P. 871, 872 (Colo. 1918).
  180. See, Yampa Valley Elec. v. Telecky, 862 P.2d 252, 257 (Colo. 1993) and Blueflame Gas, Inc. v. Van Hoose, 679 P.2d 579, 591 (Colo. 1984).
  181. Moore v. Standard Paint & Glass Co., 358 P. 2d 33, 37 (Colo. 1960)
  182. Blueflame Gas, Inc. v. Van Hoose, 679 P.2d 579 (Colo. 1984).
  183. Electricity: Denver Consolidated Electric Company. V. Simpson, 41 P. 499 (Colo. 1895) ; Denver Consol. Elec. Co. v. Lawrence, 73 P. 39 (Colo. 1903); Arkansas Valley Ry., Light & Power Co. v. Ballinger, 178 P. 566 (Colo. 1919); Blankette v. Public Service Co. of Colorado, 10 P.2d 327 (1932); Federal Insurance Co. v. Public Service Co., 570 P.2d 239 (Colo. 1977); Smith v. Home Light & Power, 734 P.2d 1051 (Colo. 1987); Yampa Valley Elec. Assoc., Inc. v. Telecky, 862 P.2d 252 (Colo. 1993); Mladjan v. Public Service Co. of Colorado, 797 P.2d 1299 (Colo. App 1990). Propane gas: Blueflame Gas, Inc. v. Van Hoose, 679 P.2d 579 (Colo. 1984); Grange Mutual Fire Ins. Co. v. Golden Gas Co., 298 P.2d 950 (1956); U.S. Fidelity & Guaranty Co. v. Salida Gas Service Co. 793 P.2d 602 (Colo. App. 1989). Nitroglycerin: E. I. DuPont De Nemours & Co. v. Cudd, 176 F.2d 855 (10th Cir. 1949); Amusement Park rides: Hook v. Lakeside Park Co., 351 P.2d 261 (1960). Other jurisdictions have also applied this standard to butane gas, gasoline, natural gas and anhydrous ammonia. See Blueflame Gas, 679 P.2d 579, 588.
  184. Mannhard v. Clear Creek Skiing Corp., 682 P.2d 64, 66 (Colo. App. 1983) cert. den. (May 29, 1984).
  185. Western Stock Center, Inc. v. Sevot, Inc., 578 P.2d 1045 (1978).
  186. Imperial Dist. Services v. Forrest, 741 P.2d 1251, 1255 (Colo. 1987).
  187. Holmes v. Gamble, 655 P.2d 405 (Colo. 1982)
  188. Hook v. Lakeside Park Co.,351 P.2d 261, 269 (Colo. 1960), Scott v. Greeley Joslin Store Co., 243 P. 2d 394, 397 (Colo. 1952), Gylling v. Hinds, 222 P.2d 413, 415 (Colo. 1950) and Zimmerman v. Franzen, 220 P.2d 344, 352 (1950).
  189. Boulder Valley Coal v. Jernberg, 197 P.2d 155, 156 (?)
  190. The res ipsa loquitur doctrine has also been rejected in cases where injuries occurred during the shooting of an oil and gas well. See E.I. Dupont de Nemours & Co. v. Cudd, 176 F. 2d 855, 858 (10th Cir. 1949).
  191. Greenwell v. Gill, 660 P.2d 1305, 1307 (Colo. App. 1982).
  192. E.g., C.B. Raleigh, Earthquakes and Fluid Injection, Underground Waste Management and Environmental Implications, 273 (1972); Scott D. Davis & Cliff Frohlich, Did (or Will) Fluid Injection Cause Earthquakes: Criteria for a Rational Assessment, 64 Seismological Res. Letters 207 (1993); Harsh K. Gupta, Damsite Investigations, Reservoir Induced Earthquakes, 319 (1992).
  193. Jefferson County School District R-1 v. Justus, 725 P.2d 767, 770-772 (Colo. 1986). See also Lester v. Marshall, 352 P.2d 786, 790-791 (Colo. 1960). Even this possibility of liability may be limited by Colo. Rev. Stat. Sec. §13-21-116(2)(a) which states, "a person shall not be deemed to have assumed a duty of care where none otherwise existed when he performs a service or an act of assistance, without compensation or expectation of compensation, for the benefit of another person." A similar provision applies to public entities and public employees. Colo. Rev. Stat. §24-10-106.5.
  194. Leake v. Cain 720 P.2d 152,160 (Colo. 1986). Accord: University of Denver v. Whitlock, 744 P.2d 54 (Colo. 1987).
  195. Rest. 2d of Torts Sec. 314. There may be a moral duty, however.
  196. Jackson Marine Corp. v. Blue Fox, 845 F.2d 1307 (5th Cir. 1988)
  197. Allison v. Smith, 695 P. 2d 791, 793-794 (Colo. App. 1984).
  198. Allison v. Smith, 695 P. 2d 791, 794 (Colo. App. 1984)
  199. Northwest Water Corporation v. Pennetta 479 P.2d 398, 400 (Colo. 1970).
  200. City of Englewood v. Kingsley, 497 P.2d 1004, (Colo. 1972); Hobbs v. Smith, 493 P.2d 1352, 1354 (1972).
  201. Allison v. Smith, 695 P.2d 791,794 (Colo. App. 1984); Krebs v. Hermann, 6 P.2d 907, 908 (1931).
  202. Lowder v. Tina Marie Home, Inc., 601 P.2d 657, 658 (Colo. App. 1979).
  203. Darlene A. Cypser & Scott D. Davis, Liability for Induced Earthquakes, 9 J. Envtl. L. & Litig. 551, 584 (1994).
  204. id at n.177.
  205. The source of these vibrations have included rocket engines, ice plants, railroad engines, oil and gas wells, gas turbines, as well as explosives. See D.A. Cypser & S.D. Davis, Liability for Induced Earthquakes, 9 J. Envtl. L. & Litig. 551 (1994) note 166. One case, Dixon v. New York Trap Rock Corp., 58 N.E2d 517 (N.Y. 1944), should be especially noted since the Trap Rock Quarry was later found to be inducing earthquakes and some of the concussions complained of by the plaintiff could have been induced earthquakes. id. at 584-585.
  206. 12 Colo. 294 (1889).
  207. Colorado General Statute §2798 was enacted in 1874 and was similar to the current statute Colo. Rev. Stat. §40-30-103 (1996).
  208. 20 P. 754, 754 (1889). The court further stated that the statute was "but a re-enactment pro tanto of the ancient common law." id. at 759. Colorado adopted the common law of England by statute as it existed (with some exceptions) in 1607 A.D.. See Colo. Rev. Stat. §2-4-211 (1996).
  209. Rhinehart v. Denver & R.G.R. Co., 158 P. 149, 154-5 (1916).
  210. Barr v. Game, Fish and Parks Commission, 497 P. 2d 340 (1972); Ryan Gulch Reservoir Co. v. Swartz 263 P. 728 (Colo. 1928).
  211. Colo. Rev. Stat. §148-5-4 (1964).
  212. Sylvester v. Jerome, 34 P. 760, 762 (1893) But see Garnet Ditch & Reservoir Co. v. Sampson, 110 P. 79 (Colo. 1910) in which the Supreme Court stated that common law was not controlling on the issue, only the Colorado statute applied, and Kane v. Town of Estes Park, 786 P.2d 412, 415 (Colo. 1990) in which the Colorado Supreme Court said that the statutory provisions were comprehensive and had preempted the common law.
  213. Colo. Rev. Stat. §37-87-104.
  214. Cass Company Contractors v. Colton, 279 P.2d 415 (Colo. 1955); Garden of the Gods Village, Inc, v. Hellman, 294 P.2d 597 (Colo. 1956).
  215. Liber v. Flor, 415 P.d 332 (Colo. 1966).
  216. 519 F. Supp. 515 (1981).
  217. 585 P.2d 1206 (Alaska, 1978).
  218. Ward v. Aero-spray, Inc., 458 P.2d 744 (1969).
  219. Hartford Fire Ins. Co. v. Public Service Co., 676 P.2d 25 (Colo. App. 1983).
  220. Forrest v. Imperial Dist. Services, Inc., 712 P.2d 488 (Colo. App. 1985).
  221. 294 P.2d 597, 600 (1967).
  222. Darlene A. Cypser & Scott D. Davis, Liability for Induced Earthquakes, 9 J. Envtl. L. & Litig. 551, 569-575 (1994).